The giant swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes) is the largest butterfly in North America. It is abundant through many parts of North America and ranges south as far as Colombia and Venezuela. Though it is often valued in gardens for its striking appearance, its larval stage can be a serious pest to citrus farms, which has earned its caterpillars the names orange dog or orange puppy. The pupa are vulnerable to parasites like flies and wasps. However during the larval stages, they have adapted to use protective coloration and other measures to prevent predation.
Geographic range
The giant swallowtail is common across the United States, reaching as far north as southern New England and southern Canada. South of the United States, it is found through Mexico and as far south as South America, and is also found in Jamaica and Cuba. The species' distribution in the western United States is more concentrated in the south, reaching through the plains and Rocky Mountains, and into southern California.
Habitat
In the United States, P. cresphontes mostly inhabit deciduous forest and citrus orchards. They are only capable of overwintering in Florida and the deep South.
Food resources
Caterpillars
As well as eating valuable citrus crops, larvae eat a wide variety of plants in the family Rutaceae (citrus plants), including different types of prickly ash. They also consume some exotic Rutaceae species that have been introduced to North America, such as gasplant and sapote. Â
Feeding specialization
In specific local subpopulations (studied in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Florida), it was found that giant swallowtail caterpillars do better on their local host plant than on other giant swallowtail host plants. The local host caused the larva to develop faster than other plants that were also edible to the larva. However, this feeding specialization hypothesis has not been tested in the species as a whole beyond these three regions.
Adults
Nectar plants for adults include, Lantana, Azaleas, Bougainvilla, Saponaria officinalis, Hesperis matronalis, Solidago, Lonicera japonica, and Asclepias incarnata. Along with flower nectar, adults can also consume liquid from animal waste.
Life history
Eggs
Females lay eggs on the tops of the leaves of one of their preferred host plants. This is because the first larval instars are unable to move from plant to plant, so the mother must select an appropriate plant to support them. One egg is lain at a time, as opposed to in clutches. The small egg (1-1.5 mm) is brownish colored, but appears more orange due to a special orange colored secretion.
Caterpillars
Once emerged from the eggs, there are five larval instars, wherein the larva grow to about 2 inches before pupating. Larvae are mostly nocturnal, feeding at night. Their appearance changes slightly throughout the instars, with the younger ones having setae and the older instars lacking setae. The caterpillars have remarkable camouflage patterns.
Pupation
Larvae must find a vertical plant, or sometimes a man-made object, to form their chrysalis on, and often they choose the host plant they already occupy. They attach a brown, mottled chrysalis to their substrate of choice, and remain in it for approximately 10â€"12 days, although the time can vary, and in the fall they may stay in the chrysalis stage over winter and emerge in the spring.
Adult
One of the giant swallowtail's most notable features is its size. Females have an average wingspan of 5.5 in (14 cm), and up to 6.9 in (18 cm), while males’ average is 5.8 in (15 cm), and up to 7.4 in (19 cm). The wings are black with a horizontal yellow line across the forewings, and a diagonal yellow line across the hindwing. The underside of the wings is yellow with accents of black. A small patch of red on the ventral wing (within the small blue band) allows for distinction from the similar-looking Schaus’ swallowtail.Â
Enemies
Parasites
Giant swallowtails are most vulnerable to parasites when they are in their chrysalis. Common parasites include flies and wasps such as Brachymeria robusta, Pteromalus cassotis, Pteromalus vanessae, and Lespesia rileyi.
Protective coloration and behavior
Larvae have many adaptations to protect themselves from predators.
Coloration
The caterpillars’ intricate coloring patterns are an effective camouflage and defense against both vertebrate and invertebrate predators and parasites. It is thought that the coloration was naturally selected for because of its imitation of bird and lizard droppings. The caterpillar mimics certain droppings based on its habitat and which instar it is. The caterpillars’ coloration, particularly the saddle pattern, is also thought to be disruptive coloration. This means the coloration makes it harder for a predator to distinguish the shape of the camouflaged prey, which explains the continuation of this coloration pattern in larger instars that are too large to be mistaken for bird droppings. It has also been hypothesized that the older instars’ pattern is meant to be reminiscent of a snake.
Other defensive measures
When camouflage is not enough, larvae will employ their osmeterium when they are threatened. The osmeterium is an organ behind the head that “inflates†into an orange/red Y-shaped growth that resembles a snake’s forked tongue. By the fourth instar, the osmeterium is more than just a startle mechanism and also has bad-smelling and toxic mixture of acidic chemicals. This is only effective on small invertebrate predators, and the caterpillar will try to rub their osmeterium on the predator to deter them. It has been experimentally tested and found that osmeterium are ineffective at deterring predation from birds.
Mating
Males search for females along set flight paths and near host plants, and mate with females in the afternoon.
Physiology
Identifying host plants
Giant swallowtail butterflies must correctly identify their host plants by antennal sensitivity to the specific volatile compounds in the plants. A study found that antennal response to these volatiles depends upon the concentration of the volatiles, the host plant of origin (whether it is a primary or secondary host), and the sex of the butterfly. This last dependency is thought to be because the females, not the males, must identify the correct host plant for egg laying.
Flight
All giant swallowtails have a distinctive flight pattern which generally looks as if they are "hopping" through the air. Females tend to beat their wings slowly but move quickly. Because females have such large wings, each wing beat will carry it a long way. Males, however, tend to have more of a darting flight. Males beat their wings rapidly, but they move more slowly than females because their wings are smaller and each beat cannot carry them as far as that of females. Giant swallowtails in general fly fast and high, making them difficult to capture.
Interactions with humans
Referred to as “orange dogs†by farmers, the larva targets sweet orange (Citrus × sinensis), causing damage to this valuable produce-bearing plant. The larvae are most detrimental to younger trees, which they can more thoroughly defoliate. Outside of farms, the species is valued for its aesthetic appeal in gardens, and larger trees will not be damaged by larva presence.
Control
Biological insecticides, such as Bacillus thuringiensi, as well as chemical insecticides, are used to protect trees against larvae. Methionine, an essential amino acid in humans, has also been found to be an effective killer of caterpillars, with possible use as a less toxic pesticide against giant swallowtail larvae.
Effects of climate change
There has been a northern expansion of the range of the giant swallowtail in recent years which has been linked to increasingly warm temperatures, and particularly to a lack of September frosts in regions of expansion starting in 2001. Larvae were then able to withstand a few frosts before they pupated. The immediate effects of this warming, as well as their effect on host plants and predators, can explain the giant swallowtail’s range expansion.
References
- Burris, Judy; Richards, Wayne (2006). The Life Cycle of Butterflies. Storey Publishing. pp. 24â€"25. ISBN 978-1-58017-617-0.Â
- Kaufman, Kenn; Eaton, Eric R. (2007). "Swallowtails and Pierids". Kaufman Field Guide to Insects of North America. Houghton Mifflin Books. pp. 230â€"231. ISBN 978-0-618-15310-7.Â
- Milne, Margery & Lorus (2005) [1980]. "Butterflies and moths". National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects & Spider (23rd ed.). Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. pp. 719â€"720. ISBN 0-394-50763-0.Â
- Evans, Arthur V. (2007). "Butterflies and Moths: Order Lepidoptera". Field Guide to Insects and Spider of North America. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. p. 261. ISBN 978-1-4027-4153-1.Â
- Kaufman, Kenn; Brock, Jim P. (2003). "Swallowtails and Parnassians". Kaufman Field Guide to Butterflies of North America. Houghton Mifflin Books. pp. 38â€"39. ISBN 978-0-618-76826-4.Â
- "Species Detail Butterflies and Moths of North America". Retrieved 2009-01-18.Â
- "Species Papilio cresphontes - Giant Swallowtail - BugGuide.Net". Retrieved 2009-01-18.Â
External links
- Giant swallowtail butterfly life cycle photographs
- Giant Swallowtail on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
- Butterflycorner Images from Naturhistorisches Museum Wien
- Giant Swallowtail, Butterflies and Moths of North America
- Papilio cresphontes, funet.fi
- Giant swallowtail caterpillar - High definition video
